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When was Albus Dumbledore appointed as Headmaster? (this timeline is the result of discussion on the Loose Canon group)
'Only the Transfiguration teacher, Dumbledore, seemed to think Hagrid was innocent.' [CoS ch. #17; p. 230]
'How long have you been teaching at Hogwarts?' Professor Umbridge asked. 'Thirty-nine years this December,' said Professor McGonagall brusquely [OotP ch. #15; p. 287]
The one difference between the present-day office and this one was that it was snowing in the past; bluish flecks were drifting past the window in the dark and building up on the outside ledge. The younger Dumbledore seemed to be waiting for something, and sure enough, moments after their arrival, there was a knock on the door and he said, 'Enter.' Harry let out a hastily stifled gasp. Voldemort had entered the room. [cut] [cut] 'I heard that you had become Headmaster,' he said, [HBP ch. #20; p. 412/413]
I was then a young Transfiguration teacher, and Herbert assigned me to 'special effects', [BtB ch. #02; p. 36]
We know that Albus Dumbledore was the Transfiguration master at Hogwarts in 1943 (in Tom Riddle's fifth year), that Minerva McGonagall was Transfiguration mistress in the 1990s and that she started working at Hogwarts in December 1956 (because in September 1995 she tells Umbridge she's been there thirty-nine years come December). It is usually assumed, therefore, both that McGonagall took over the Transfiguration post from Dumbledore in 1956 and that that was the point at which he became Headmaster. This is reinforced by the fact that Minerva says she was appointed in winter, and Tom Riddle comes to see Albus soon after he became Headmaster and it is snowing.
However, we know that Remus Lupin was born in 1960, and that he was infected with lycanthropy as a small child. He speaks of Hogwarts policy regarding the admission of werewolves as if Dumbledore definitely became Headmaster after he was infected: and long enough after he was infected that his parents had had time to find out what the policy of the previous Headmaster was, and to be worrying about his future academic career. Lupin isn't the most reliable or accurate of witnesses but he has no reason to lie about this, and it's unlikely that he, an Order member, would actually not know at least roughly when Dumbledore became Head. If we take his word for it, then, that would mean that Dumbledore became Headmaster some time in the 1960s.
[cut] 'Voldemort first approached Professor Dippet and asked whether he could remain at Hogwarts as a teacher.' [HBP ch. #20; p. 403]
Professor Dippet told him that he was too young at eighteen, but invited him to reapply in a few years, if he still wished to teach.' [cut] 'Which job did he want, sir? What subject did he want to teach?' [cut] 'Defence Against the Dark Arts. It was being taught at the time by an old Professor by the name of Galatea Merrythought, who had been at Hogwarts for nearly fifty years.' [HBP ch. #20; p. 404/405]
The house-elf returned within minutes, followed by a tall young man Harry had no difficulty whatsoever in recognising as Voldemort. [HBP ch. #20; p. 406]
'Help yourself, Tom,' said Hepzibah, 'I know how you love my cakes. Now, how are you? You look pale. They overwork you at that shop,' [cut] 'Mr Burke would like me to make an improved offer for the goblin-made armour,' said Voldemort. [HBP ch. #20; p. 407]
'Ten years separate Hokey's memory and this one, ten years during which we can only guess at what Lord Voldemort was doing ...' [cut] And Harry dived after Dumbledore through the shifting silver mass, landing in the very office he had just left. [cut] The one difference between the present-day office and this one was that it was snowing in the past; bluish flecks were drifting past the window in the dark and building up on the outside ledge. The younger Dumbledore seemed to be waiting for something, and sure enough, moments after their arrival, there was a knock on the door and he said, 'Enter.' Harry let out a hastily stifled gasp. Voldemort had entered the room. [HBP ch. #20; p. 412/413]
'I have returned,' he said, after a little while, 'later, perhaps, than Professor Dippet expected ... but I have returned, nevertheless, to request again what he once told me I was too young to have. I have come to you to ask that you permit me to return to this castle, to teach.' [HBP ch. #20; p. 414/415]
'Oh, he definitely wanted the Defence Against the Dark Arts job,' said Dumbledore. [HBP ch. #20; p. 418]
If we uncouple Minerva's arrival from Albus's appointment as Headmaster, what other clues do we have as to when he was appointed? We know that Tom Riddle came to see him soon after he was made Headmaster, and that this was ten years after Tom murdered Hepzibah Smith. We know that Tom joined Borgin and Burkes soon after he left school, which would have been in 1945 (we know it was 1945 because during the academic year 1992/93 we are told that the Chamber of Secrets was last opened fifty years beforehand, i.e. in academic year 1942/43, and that was Tom's fifth year). We know Tom was still working for Borgin and Burkes when he murdered Hepzibah.
What we do not know is how long Tom had been working for Borgin and Burkes before he murdered Hepzibah. But we do know that when Harry, who is himself sixteen at that point, sees a Pensieved memory of Tom talking to Hepzibah he looks to Harry like a young man. So we can assume that Tom is no older than thirty at the outside, and this is no later than 1957 (Tom turned thirty-one in 1957 - but not until the very last day of the year).
That means Dumbledore was appointed Headmaster no later than 1967 - probably some years less, but not earlier than 1963, to allow time for Remus to have been infected and his parents to have looked into his future educational prospects as a were. Circa 1963 or 1964 seems most likely, allowing time for Remus to have been infected and his future discussed, whilst having Tom only twenty-six or twenty-seven when Harry saw him and thought of him as a young man.
So what happened about the Transfiguration post, if Minerva started working at Hogwarts in 1956 but Albus didn't become Headmaster until 1964? The fact that Tom Riddle turns up at Hogwarts soon after Albus's promotion, applying for the Defence Against the Dark Arts post, suggests that he knew the DADA post to be vacant - which in turn suggests that Albus had been teaching DADA before that point.
The discussion group on Loose Canon came up with two alternative scenarios.
One: The DADA post became vacant in 1945 when Galatea Merrythought retired. Tom Riddle applied for the job but was turned down by Headmaster Dippet because he was too young. In order to keep Tom from applying again Albus Dumbledore took the DADA job himself, playing on his credentials as the recent vanquisher of Grindelwald. An unnamed person took over as Transfiguration teacher and remained until 1956, when they left for reasons which are not specified, and Minerva McGonagall then took the Transfiguration post.
Two: The DADA post was supposed to became vacant in 1945 when Galatea Merrythought retired. Tom Riddle applied for the job but was turned down by Headmaster Dippet because he was too young. Either Professor Merrythought changed her[?] mind and stayed on (after all we know there were rumours of Merrythought retiring while Tom was in his mid teens, and yet she was still there when Tom finished school at eighteen), or an unknown person took over the DADA job. In 1956, either the unknown person or Professor Merrythought left. That left the DADA post vacant. Albus Dumbledore was concerned that if Tom Riddle were to apply for the DADA post now he would be given it, since he was now almost thirty, so instead he stepped in and took the DADA job himself, playing the "vanquisher of Grindelwald" card. That left the Transfiguration post vacant so Minerva McGonagall was hired.
In both cases, Albus's promotion to Headmaster in circa 1964 left the DADA post vacant, and Tom then applied for it (and cursed it, when he was unsuccessful).
[cut] 'one of the most powerful wizards of all time, a wizard who has eluded capture for almost three decades!' [1996] [HBP ch. #01; p. 18]
'And what will become of those whom you command? What will happen to those who call themselves -- or so rumour has it -- the Death Eaters?' [shortly after Dumbledore's appointment as Head] [HBP ch. #20; p. 416]
Having Tom Riddle work for Borgin and Burke's for eight years before he found the cup and locket seems a little long. On the other hand, we know that when Tom applied to Dumbledore for the DADA job he already had (according to Dumbledore) at least the beginnings of a private army and the name "Death Eaters", but he doesn't seem to have become an active menace until 1970. If Dumbledore became Head in 1956 that would mean that it took the Death Eaters fourteen years from that point to attract enough negative attention for the Ministry to recognise them as a threat and try to capture Riddle; whereas if Dumbledore became Head circa 1963 the time-line for the Death Eaters' rise seems more reasonable - as well as resolving the problem of Lupin's statement that Dumbledore became Head after he was bitten.
A highly polished collection of chains and manacles hung on the wall behind Filch's desk. It was common knowledge that he was always begging Dumbledore to let him suspend students by their ankles from the ceiling. [CoS ch. #08; p. 96]
'Your father and I had been for a night-time stroll,' she said. 'He got caught by Apollyon Pringle -- he was the caretaker in those days -- your father's still got the marks.' [GoF ch. #31; p. 535]
'Yerse ... I've been telling Dumbledore for years and years he's too soft with you all,' said Filch, chuckling nastily. 'You filthy little beasts would never have dropped Stink Pellets if you'd known I had it in my power to whip you raw, would you, now? Nobody would have thought of throwing Fanged Frisbees down the corridors if I could've strung you up by the ankles in my office, would they? But when Educational Decree Number Twenty-nine comes in, Potter, I'll be allowed to do them things ... and she's asked the Minister to sign an order for the expulsion of Peeves ... oh, things are going to be very different around here with her in charge ...' [OotP ch. #28; p. 554]
'Approval for Whipping ... Approval for Whipping ... I can do it at last ... they've had it coming to them for years ...' [OotP ch. #29; p. 593]
There's also another factor which tends to favour Dumbledore becoming Headmaster later rather than sooner. It is strongly implied that extreme physical punishment of students was allowed at Hogwarts at some time in the past. Filch speaks of "the old punishments" having been allowed to die out and he certainly seems to be referring to punishments allowed at Hogwarts, not just punishments allowed by wizard society in general, because he says that he "still" has the chains - that is, they're almost certainly old chains left over from the past, not ones he has brought there himself. Dumbledore however will not let him use these methods.
We do not have absolute proof of when physical punishment ceased to be employed at Hogwarts, or whether it was allowed under Dippet, Dumbledore's predecessor. However, we know that Bill Weasley, the oldest known Weasley child, was born circa 1970, and that Arthur and Molly were already dating when they were at Hogwarts. Given how fecund they are, Bill was probably born not too long after they left school, so so they were most likely at Hogwarts in the mid and late 1960s. During that time, they were caught together after hours and the then caretaker, Apollyon Pringle, punished Arthur in some way which scarred him for life (although we are not told whether Pringle used hands-on means or a hex to do so).
It may have been this incident with Arthur which prompted Dumbledore to ban physical punishment, or it may have been the case that he had already banned it and Pringle was breaking the rules (and perhaps was sacked and replaced by Filch as a result). But the earlier we have Albus becoming Headmaster, the more years elapsed during which he either allowed extreme physical punishments, or Pringle felt justified in defying the rules and returning to an older, more barbaric time. Either of these seem more likely after five years than twelve.
